Sindhi connection with Spain and Morocco

Since the 15th century, Morocco has been in conflict with three nations: Spain, Portugal, and France. In 1912, when Morocco became a French protectorate, Spain occupied the northern and southern zones, leaving few enclaves along the Mediterranean coast. The two most significant of these enclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, remain Spanish territories on Morocco's northernmost tip. Since 1995, they have been recognised as 'autonomous cities of Spain' on African soil. However, this post is not about Morocco, Spanish colonisation, or the two territories themselves. Instead, it explores a curious connection between the Indian subcontinent and Morocco, specifically the presence of Sindhi quarters in these offshore lands.

The connection between Sindh and Ceuta and Melilla is still indirect, with Gibraltar being another territory involved. When Sindh was annexed to British India in 1843, it gained extraterritorial trading privileges. Since Gibraltar was already a British colony at the time, Sindhi traders were shipped to this tiny port at the bottom of Spain, at the opening of the Mediterranean from the Iberian peninsula. Ceuta and Melilla held the status of free-trading ports, so these Sindhi merchants would switch between colonial harbours. There's even a record of a certain Bazar el Indio in Ceuta dating back to 1893. In fact, even today, there's a Hindu temple at Echegaray Street in Ceuta, marking a tiny Hindu legacy that lingers in these streets. This settlement primarily occurred after partition, when Sindhi people decided to settle in these territories, leading to an increase in Sindhi migration in the 1950s. 

The Association of Hindu Merchants, established in 1948, opened trading centres in Ceuta and connected traders across the globe, reaching as far as Gold Coast (Ghana) and Hong Kong, two significant British colonies at the time. From this mercantile clan emerged a figure in Sindhi history, revered as a father figure in the community: Bhai Pratap Dialdas Nanwani. Originating from Hyderabad, Sindh (now in Pakistan), he established his business of trading textiles, fabrics, and handicrafts in various global locations, including Ceuta. With the profits from these ventures, he played a crucial role in helping Sindhi Hindus find refuge in Gandhidham, Adipur, and Kandla (all in the Kutch district).

Another notable figure was Wadhumal Isardas Ramchandani, who arrived in Gibraltar in 1920. Initially working as a manager for Dialdas' firm, he eventually became the first president of the Association of Hindu Merchants (Asociación de Comerciantes Hindúes de Ceuta) in 1948. These names hold significant importance, particularly in the history of South Asia, as they represent the contributions of Hindu merchants to the region's economic development and cultural exchange. 

It all comes down to identity - both loss and restoration. After partition, Sindhi Hindus didn't have a home of their own, and to this day, there's no designated Sindhi state in India. While there are Hindu minorities in Pakistan, a full-fledged Sindhi state in India is still missing. Having a whole community of its own is always a sense of identity restoration for any community. 

Sindhis in India are mainly segregated in Ulhasnagar (in Thane, Maharashtra), Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Delhi, and Pune. However, one will find Sindhi 'colonies' in these cities - Sindhi Colony in Mumbai, Rajouri Gardens in Delhi, and Pune Camp - all except Ulhasnagar, which is the majoritarian Sindhi diaspora. Despite this, a separate state or even a historical region is still missing. Therefore, a full-fledged Sindhi neighbourhood holds high regard, regardless of whether it's in an obscure tiny settlement called Ceuta - unheard of and unknown to the majority.

Below are recreations of two maps: Ceuta, dating 1869, originally created by Adolf Steiler, and northern Morocco (spelt as Marocco) of 1908, originally created by Rene de Flotte de Roquevaire.

When Goa governed Mozambique and Bombay administrated Seychelles

During colonisation, the norm was to control administration in foreign lands from European cities. All British colonies were controlled from London, Portuguese from Lisbon, French from Paris, and so on. Then they had provincial headquarters in foreign lands for multi-level administration. Thus, Spanish Philippines and Spanish West Indies (the islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, etc.) were administrated from Mexico City until 1821 (the year of Mexican independence), Dutch East Indies were governed from Batavia (Jakarta) from 1619, etc. Similarly, colonial forces in India also controlled certain overseas territories for a brief amount of time. Ceylon, or modern-day Sri Lanka, was briefly administrated from Madras between 1796 and 1798 and loosely till 1802 when it became a separate Crown Colony of the British Empire. The British also governed the colony of Seychelles from the Bombay Presidency during the 19th and early 20th century. The Estado da Índia, or the Portuguese State of India, administrated territories in Mozambique under the Captaincy of Sofala (between 1505 and 1752), Macau, and Portuguese Timor (Timor-Leste; till mid-18th century) from first Cochin (between 1505 and 1530) and then Goa (1530 to 1752). Similarly, the Persian Gulf Residency, Aden, and even British Somaliland reported to English authorities at Bombay at various points in the 19th century, while Strait Settlements and Singapore reported to Calcutta in the same era. Such was the length and stretch of British and Portuguese India.

The French, however, didn't control any of their non-Indian colonies from either of their five enclaves in India. Neither from Pondichéry (Puducherry), Karaïkal (Karaikal), Mahé (Mahe), Yanaon (Yanam) or even Chandernagor (Chandannagar), the French Indochina was administered, even for a temporary phase. 

This post isn't about the Indian diaspora outside the Indian realm, but only about those places where Indians reached because of temporary control from Indian settlements of Bombay, Goa, Madras and Calcutta. 

Talking especially about the Portuguese part, while they governed Mozambique from Goa, they did bring several soldiers of ethnicities such as Maravé, Sena, Makonde, Makua, Yemvane, Mutapa etc. - the Bantu-speaking people of southern Africa, who were called by a racist slur 'Cafres' (originated from the Arabic word kafir). In fact, on several old maps, the entire coast starting from South Africa and covering Eswatini, Mozambique and even Tanzania can be seen marked as 'Cafres'. This is obviously because of the European lens African maps were made, who ignored the indigenous tribal conglomeration and focused only on the simplification of internal frontiers, which to them seemed too complex to understand. 

According to an article written by Isaac Samuel in African History Extra, several Mutapa princes travelled to Goa for religious services, apart from the usual enlisting in the Portuguese army that they normally did. Mutapa was the name of the empire that succeeded Great Zimbabwe and existed between 1430 and 1888, also known as Monomotapa or Mwenumutapa, covering Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, and Mozambique. One such prince's name was Mapeze, baptised as Dom Constantino in 1699, and the next year was sent to Goa to join the Dominican order as Friar Dom Constantino do Rosário. He was shortly joined by his brother Dom João, and both their studies were funded by the Portuguese Crown, Dom Pedro II. Interestingly, Dom Constantino was exiled to Macau (later called back to Goa) for 'religious misdemeanour', but it's not reported whether any of the two brothers ever occupied any political power in Goa. 

There were also incidents in which Goans who were shipped to African colonies took part in shaping their local history. One such incident had occurred two centuries ago, in 1693, when the Mupata king, Nyakunembire (1692-1694), had jointly attacked a Portuguese fair in Dambarare (in Zimbabwe) along with a Shona-speaking Changamire (local King of the Rozvi Empire, in Zimbabwe). The attack resulted in the killing of over 60 people, that included Africans, Portuguese, and Goans. It was a personal revenge that Nyakunembire wanted to take against his own brother who was supported by the Portuguese, for claiming the Mutapa throne. But this was an unfortunate incident where Goans were killed who may have gone there to attend the fair. 

Goa's connection doesn't just lie on African lands, but in a far-off Portuguese territory on the southern shores of China - Macau. One of the longest claimed Portuguese territories in the world - from 1557 to 1999 - has a great Goan connection. According to an article written by Jessica Faleiro in 2017, a former barracks in the heart of Macau called Moorish Barracks, built in 1874, accommodated a Goan regiment to reinforce Macau's police force. Macau also has a cemetery going by the name 'Ramal dos Mouros' or 'extension of the Moors' - which is technically a racist and archaic word to describe Muslims, but lingers in the chapters of history even today. 

Another Goan connection is with what today is the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, one of the newly independent nations of the world (independence from Portugal on 20th May 2002). Between 1515 and 1844, Portuguese Timor was officially part of the Estado da Índia, having its Governor-General sit in Goa. Religiously, the Dominican friars would land at Lifau town (the former capital of Portuguese Timor) from Goa in 1556, setting up the first permanent mission there. Goan priests would also carry out ceremonial rites, devotional festivals, and church architecture to Timorese society, a legacy of which can be felt in the ruins of St. Mary of the Rosary Church at Oecusse (Oekussi). 

Let's talk about another rare connection of Indians, but this time on the islands of Seychelles, which was governed from Bombay between 1810 and 1903 and was part of the colony of Mauritius during that period. In fact, the connection between India and Seychelles goes back to 1770 when a small group of five Indians landed with several African slaves and French colonists, recording it as the islands' first inhabitants. During the period when it was governed from Bombay, there would be regular shipping links and flow of trade and commerce between India and Seychelles, and also settlement of Tamilians in Mahé and Praslin islands (parts of Seychelles). From 1903, Seychelles was operated as a separate British colony that lasted till 1976. At present, alongside the currency of Seychelles being the Seychellois Rupee, there is a thriving Gujarati and Tamil population in this tiny island nation that forms a dynamic Indian community away from India. 

Coming to Strait Settlements - Penang, Dinding, Malacca and Singapore - which were governed from Calcutta for 37 years between 1830 and 1867, apart from being British settlements in Malaya, were also used as penal colonies for Indian prisoners. In fact, the island of Pulau Jejerak near Penang had its prison hold over 3000 Indian prisoners cramped in a small cell and was flooded with cholera and smallpox. These Indian prisoners, much later, were also a cementing force in the formation of the Indian National Army (or the Azad Hind Fauj) under Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, during the times of WW2, accelerating the vigour of the Indian independence movement. 

There are many such other anecdotes that are wiped under the brushes of history and overwhelmed by popular narratives. But this chapter of Indian history, having connections with realms beyond the subcontinent, has shaped not just Indian but world history. Below here are some of the maps decorating this piece of work. 

Azaadville - Little India of South Africa

The decade of the 1960s marked a wave of mass decolonisation. A total of 31 nations globally gained independence from the United Kingdom and France, 75% of which were in Africa alone. In fact, nearly 60% of the African continent achieved sovereignty during this decade. Countries like Algeria, Chad, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania, Botswana, Cameroon,  Mauritius, among others, breathed the air of freedom for the first time in their modern histories. However, the joy of independence was quickly overshadowed by the outbreak of civil wars—many of them ignited by the deep-rooted divisions and seeds of conflict sown during colonial rule.

As the 1960s began, the earliest African country to plunge into civil war was the former Belgian Congo, which had gained independence in June 1960 and was renamed the Republic of Congo (or Congo-Léopoldville). Within days, the country descended into chaos following an army mutiny and the secession of Katanga and South Kasai, engulfing the newly independent nation in a brutal warzone that lasted five years. This was followed by the overthrow of the Arab-led Sultanate in Zanzibar (now part of Tanzania), the Oromo-Amhara ethnic rebellion in Ethiopia, the Nigerian coups and the Biafran War, political repression in Equatorial Guinea, and finally the overthrow of King Idris in Libya by Muammar Gaddafi, closing the 1960s as one of the most turbulent decades in African history.

Amid these upheavals, many Indians were trapped in the crossfire. The most infamous incident remains the expulsion of over 80,000 Indians from Uganda in 1972 by dictator Idi Amin. But there were others. Indian communities were affected during the Liberian Civil War (1989–1997), especially small diamond-trader families; the Ivory Coast Civil War (2010–2011) saw the Indian Ambassador Shamma Jain rescued by French troops during intense shelling. In the 21st century, Indian civilians were also evacuated from conflict zones in Libya, South Sudan, and most recently Sudan, where the Indian Air Force executed major rescue missions that helped over 20,000 citizens escape war zones.

Yet, this is not the only modern connection between India and Africa. Beyond medieval and colonial trade links, and apart from the Indian diasporas established through indentured labour systems in places like Mauritius or Natal in South Africa, one specific Indian connection stands out—one born of forced displacement, helplessness, and racial segregation. This is the story of Azaadville.

Located about 30 km west of Johannesburg, in the Gauteng Province of South Africa, Azaadville was established in the mid-1960s under the apartheid regime’s Group Areas Act of 1950. Indians were forcibly removed from Krugersdorp, which had been declared a "White neighbourhood", and relocated to this new township. What was intended as an act of displacement became a story of cultural survival and community building. Today, Azaadville’s streets carry names like Tulsi Street, Mandir Avenue, Mysori Avenue, Taj Mahal Street, Kashmir Street, Shastri Street, and Tagore Street—each echoing the legacy of Indian identity.

The township’s majority population is Muslim, and its religious and educational prominence grew with the founding of Darul Uloom Azaadville—a Deobandi-style Islamic seminary established by Moulana Abdul Hamid Is’haq, a South African of Indian origin, born in 1946 in Germiston. He travelled to Darul Uloom Deoband in Saharanpur, India, to study Islamic sciences, later returning to found an institution that would attract students from across the African continent. The cultural connection between Deoband and Azaadville illustrates a rare modern bridge between India and Africa, rooted in shared history, faith, and resilience.

Azaadville also features street names inspired by Iranian cities like Shiraz and Isfahan, and the name “Azaad” itself—meaning "free"—derives from Persian but is widely used in Urdu and Hindi. In the 1980s, the Hindu community in Azaadville also began to expand, and by 1985, a Hindu temple was established. To this day, festivals like Diwali, Navratri, and events by South Indian cultural organisations are actively celebrated.

While Azaadville never produced nationally famous anti-apartheid leaders, it contributed to the dismantling of apartheid through a quieter, but equally powerful form of resistance: self-reliance. By building its own religious institutions, schools, and community centres, Azaadville became a self-sustaining township that depended on no one—not even the apartheid state. Meanwhile, prominent Indian South Africans like Ahmed Kathrada, Kay Moonsamy, Paul David, Lenny Naidu, and Fatima Meer, based mostly in Durban, took direct roles in the struggle, affiliating with the United Democratic Front and the Natal Indian Congress, and supporting Nelson Mandela against the National Party’s white supremacist regime.

One may ask: if apartheid South Africa viewed Indians as non-Whites, why weren't they simply deported? The answer lies in the state’s need for Indian labour and commerce, and the logistical, diplomatic, and economic risks associated with expulsion. Indians were deeply embedded in the economy, and many were multi-generational citizens. So instead of deportation, the regime created racially segregated townships like Azaadville, Chatsworth, and Phoenix for Indians, while Lenasia, Mdantsane, Nyanga, Gugulethu, KwaMashu, and Thembalethu were designated for Black South Africans. These were meant to clear “White cities” like Fordsburg, Pageview, Clairwood, District Six, and Cato Manor between the 1950s and 1980s for exclusive white occupation.

At present, Azaadville is a hub of cultural congregation as recently in 2023, the township hosted a three-day Ijtema drawing around 30,000 Muslims for prayers. The gathering was one of the largest the province had seen and it indeed helped in strengthening a community connection for Muslims in South Africa. Below here are maps of Azaadville and a South African map marking some of the townships created for White and Coloured population, as in 1968. 

Cairo or Al Qahirah

In 525 BC, more than 2500 years ago, the first establishment of a Babylonian fortress was laid around the Nile River. At that time, Egypt was under Saite Dynasty or the 26th Dynasty of Egypt (664 to 525 BC), with the capital at Sais or Saise (anciently written as Sꜣw. Six centuries later, the Roman Emperor Trajan or Marcus Uplius Traianus, shifted the fortress a bit more closer to the Nile, felicitating agriculture and better protection from enemies. In the 3rd century AD, with the arrival of Christianity, the Saint Virgin Mary's Coptic Orthodox Church or popularly known as the Hanging Church, was built, making it as one of the oldest churches of Africa. Gradually, by the 5th century, churches such as the Coptic Orthodox Church of St. Barbara (Sitt Barbara) and Saints Sergius and Bacchus Church (Abu Serga) made Egypt as a strong Christian base in the Middle East. But in the year 642 AD, with the birth of a new religion of Islam, the Arab invaders from the south under Amr ibn al-As conquered Egypt, thus starting the Muslim rule in the country. He shifted the capital from the former Alexandria to a new establishment around the Babylon Fortress, calling it as Fustat - the first capital of Muslim Egypt and the origin of modern megapolis of Cairo.  

Fustat was one of the earliest cities to grow into a metropolis shortly after the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 AD. It overpassed the neighbouring town of Babylon (not to be confused by the Babylon near Baghdad) and took a secular label by welcoming both Jewish and Christian populace. But the capital didn't stand too long when in the 8th century, the Umayyads were thrown by the Abbasids who formed a new capital close to Fustat - al-'Askar between 750 to 868 AD. This was followed by emergence of another short-lived capital of the Tulunids towards the end of the 9th century, called Qata'i, similar to the town of Samarra in Iraq. 

Finally, in the year 969 AD, Jawhar Al-Siqilli of the Fatimid Empire establishes a new settlement of Qahirat Al-Moez or Al Qahira or what got to be later modernised as - Cairo. The city later progressed and flourished and remained the unchanged capital of Egyptian empires till date. The Fatimids fortified Cairo with eight gates, the Ayyubids built a citadel (Qalaet Al-Gabal), introduced madrasas, the Mamluks expanded it like no other king had done before by building various mosques and palaces and made Cairo a major trade hub in the 15th century. The neighbourhood of Boulaq or Bulaq was established in the 1480s, expanding between a massive area between Al-Qahira and Fustat. The islands of Roda and Halima neighboured to its west in the River Nile. 

But the Ottoman era saw a major shift in the story of Cairo. In the last week of January 1517, Cairo was captured by the Ottoman Sultan, Selim I (r. 1512 - 1520), thus starting the decline of the city. The rise of Constantinople in the north made Cairo as just one of the many provincial capitals as trade route between the Black Sea, Asia Minor and Alexandria saw a handful of Christian ships sailing. The pre-Ottoman era had made Cairo as a cradle of numerous mosques and important Islamic centres such as Amr ibn Al-As, Al-Azhar, Ibn Tulun etc. but with the transformation of Hagia Sophia into a mosque by the Ottomans in 1453, it got a centrepiece of entire Islamic population in the 15th century. This was also the time of rising exploration by European powers such as the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and the Danish, and the most important landmark moment was the discovery of trade route to India via the Cape of Good Hope, in today's South Africa. This threatened the Ottoman hegemony and numerous naval battles were fought in the Arabian Sea, close to Indian coast, shifting Turkish attention towards controlling the waters. 

The next big power to eye on Cairo (and Egypt, as a whole) were the French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte, when in 1798 he decided to block British trade to India. It is also said that Napoleon had future ambitions to ally with Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Indian princely state of Mysore, and jointly push the British out. But before he could solidify this plan, the French ultimately were defeated by an Anglo-Ottoman alliance, although Napoleon did win numerous battles of the campaign such as at Embabeh (Imbaba; battle of the Pyramids, 1798), revolt at Cairo (1798) and Abukir (1799), giving a brief French control of the country for the three years between 1798 to 1801. 

But the British control over Egypt and later, annexation of Sudan to form a territory of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899 - 1956) transformed Egypt under the new colonial power. Buildings such as Masr el-Gedida, thhe Wust el-Balad or Downtown Cairo, the Zamalek etc. are structured in European style during the British occupation of the country. In fact, outside Egypt, there are several locations that share the name 'Cairo', mostly in the United States. Under the British, Cairo expanded towards the outskirt neighborhood of Heliopolis, which was established close to the ruins of the ancient Heliopolis, which was a major city between 305 to 30 BC. Cairo also expanded beyond the western areas of Nile in Giza, where the great Pyramids are to be seen. With the departure of colonisation, Greater Cairo came in the picture in the 1970s that spun more than 2,700 sq km area. 

Today, Cairo is the third largest city of Africa in population and 3rd by GDP ($ 7,200 mil) as per a source of 2023 data. Cairo also served as the capital of the United Arab Republic, a temporary union of Egypt and Syria between 1958 to 1961, the United Arab States, another temporary confederation between Egypt, Syria and North Yemen (1958 to 1961) and Federation of Arab Republics (an attempt of uniting Egypt, Libya and Syria between 1972 to 1977).

Below here is a map of Cairo dating 1933 by Alexander Nicholsoff.  

Transvaal 1892

The modern history of South Africa begins in the 19th century, but the nation's identity formation traces back to the medieval era. The Khoekhoe people, the first tribes in South Africa, inhabited the Western Cape province around 1000 AD. Over the following centuries, the central part of the country, including the Northern Cape, Free State, and Eastern Cape provinces, saw the dominance of the Sotho tribe with pockets of Hlubi and Basuto clans extending towards present-day Eswatini (formerly Swaziland). Other tribes like Tlokwa, Nguni, Ndebele, Rolong, Swazi, and more arrived in the medieval era and continued to form societies until the early 1500s, when the Portuguese made the first European arrival on the coast of present-day Mozambique.

South Africa remained untouched by colonization until the mid-1650s when the Dutch arrived at Cape Colony in the southwest corner of the country. In the northeastern part of the region, indigenous nations such as Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, Ndebele, Hlubis, and Swazi had established themselves. In the 19th century, the Zulu Empire emerged in this area, marking an important era and becoming the first to conflict with the British Empire. The Zulus engaged in battles with both smaller clans and the advancing British and Dutch-speaking Voortrekkers – the original European settlers who opposed the British presence. The Voortrekkers, traveling in wagons, became a crucial turning point in South Africa's colonial history.

During the mid-1800s, the Voortrekkers established independent nations in the central and northern parts of South Africa, such as Potchefstroom-Winsberg Republic, Waterboer's Land, Campbell Lands, Ohrigstad, and Lydenburg. While this was happening in northern South Africa, the British established one of the earliest settlements on the coast of the Zulu Empire, named St. Lucia Bay, in 1853. The Dutch-speaking settlements united in the same year to form the first South African Republic or Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, resisting British influence. The constant conflicts with both original Dutch settlers and native tribes, along with British forces, led to the gradual colonization of South African territories as part of the broader 'Scramble for Africa' policy.

In 1877, the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek was renamed Transvaal, representing the territories beyond the Vaal River. The struggle between Transvaal's independence and British colonialism lasted from 1877 to 1900, culminating in September 1900. A decade later, Transvaal integrated into the Union of South Africa and continued as a province until 1994. With the abolishment of apartheid, the province was divided into Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and parts of North West.

Examining old maps, the regions of northern South Africa were once dominated by the country of Monomotapa and Caffaria. Monomotapa is a Portuguese mispronunciation of the old kingdom of Motapa, known as Mwene we Mutapa in the regional language. The term Caffaria, rooted in racism, was used to discriminate natives based on their color. By the mid-1700s, maps began to display the names of native tribes, such as Chainouquas, Gouriquas, Sonquas, on a 1756 dated French map. By the late 18th century, Southern Africa appeared marked with various territories like The Land of the Hottentots, Country of the Namaguas, Tambookies, Hambrona, Capelleh, Cambedoo, etc.

In an interesting historical note, a 1856 American map featured an area named 'Vaal River,' comprising the territory south of the Vaal River to around Welkom city in the Free State province. This sheds light on the logic behind Dutch settlements uniting to form the South African Republic, famously known as 'Transvaal,' signifying its location beyond the Vaal River to the north. The name Transvaal subsequently appeared on maps, becoming a significant landmark in South African history. Below is a map depicting 19th-century Transvaal.

Forts of Ghana

With Côte d'Ivoire in the west, Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in the north and Togo in the east, and the great Atlantic Ocean in the south, the country of Ghana boasts a rich history and perhaps one of the key civilisations in west Africa. Interestingly, the Empire of Ghana that existed between 2nd-4th centuries AD to 1300, was spread out between what today is Mali and Mauritania. The Akan people then migrated to the southern coast and when the British colony of Gold Coast achieved independence in 1957 (the first of sub-Saharan nations to achieve independence), in the memory of their ancestors, the nation was renamed as Ghana. 

But like any other imperial colony, Ghana had its own history popped by European colonisation. And the first thing any European colonist does, is fortifications, that too on the coast of that nation to have easy access to seaways and harbours. But particularly the coast of Ghana is rich in gold deposits and even in today's times, according to a statistic data of 2022, Ghana is one of the top 15 nations with largest gold deposits in the world. Hence, the raid began and it were the Portuguese who started with colonising the northern tip of Morocco in early 1400s. Slowly, they started harbouring on the western coastal island settlements such as Arguin (island in Mauritania), Gorée (island in Senegal) and finally on the Gold Coast in 1471 (Elmina Castle or Castelo de São Jorge da Mina). On the even of the 1600s, the Dutch took over from the Portuguese as the latter were expanding its territories on the eastern African coasts of Zanzibar and Mozambique. But the first English trade expedition had already taken place some fifty decades before in 1553 under Thomas Windham and Antonio Anes Pinteado. Finally, the English administration started from 1651, first under the Company of Merchants Trading to Guinea, then to the Company of London Merchants and finally under the East India Company (from 1657). And slowly the establishment of English forts started such as Cape Coast Castle (1664), James Fort (1673), Charles Fort (1674), Fort Metal Cross (1691), James Fort (1673) etc. The British ruled till 1957 and after the unification of territories such as Gold Coast Colony, Ashanti, Northern Territories and British Togoland to form an independent state of Ghana. 

But these weren't the only European colonies in Ghana. There were Danes and the very rare colonies of Prussia and Sweden that settled on the coast of Ghana. The Danish Gold Coast or the Danske Guldkyst was an accumulation of settlements such as Fort Friedensborg (at Ningo), Ft. Christiansborg (at Accra), Ft. Augustaborg (at Tashe), Ft. Prinzenstein (at Keta), Ft. Konigenstein (at Ada), Ft. Carlsborg (at Cape Castle) and Ft. Frederiksborg (at Amanful) between 1658 to 1850, collectively known as Danish Guinea (Dansk Guinea). The Prussian or Brandenburger colonies exist between 1681 to 1724 and were settled at Ft. Dorothea (at Akwidaa), Gross-Friedrichsburg (at Pokesu) and Ft. Louise (at Takrama). And finally, the Swedes settled at Ft. Carolusborg or Carlsborg (at Cape Castle), Ft. Apollonia (at Beyin), Ft. Frederiksborg (at Accra), Ft. Batenstein (at Butri), Ft. Witsen or Taccorari (at Takoradi) and Ft. William or Annomabu (at Annomabu) between 1650 to 1663. These fortifications were taken over first by the Dutch and later, the British. 

Although later, the German powers established their control over certain territories in Africa, the Swedes decided to wrap up their expedition dreams as they couldn't face the stiff competition by the dominating Dutch, Portuguese and British. It's interesting as Africa is the only continent where almost every country in Europe had its colonies at least once during the colonial era (except Austria and Russia). Colonists like Belgium, Sweden and Italy, that didn't had settlements elsewhere, had their decent amount of share on the African land. 

These names are plentiful and even today the country boasts many of these fortifications either intact or in ruins preserved in museums. These forts and castles are part of the UNESCO World Heritage sites of Ghana with some particular names such as Fort Saint Anthony (or Santo Antonio, Axim), Osu Castle (or Christiansborg Castle, Accra), Fort Batenstein (at Butri), Fort Metal Cross (at Dixcove), Fort Amsterdam (at Abandze), Fort St. Jago (or Ft. Coenraadsburg, at Elmina) etc. being more popular than others. 

Sykes-Picot Agreement - the reshaping of the Middle East 1916

The collapse of empires often leads to international powers converging to determine the fate of the region, dividing it into countries and territories that become perpetual battlegrounds, resulting in the loss of millions of innocent lives. These interventions typically benefit the interests of major colonial powers, particularly Britain, France, Italy, Germany, and imperial Russia. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, for instance, orchestrated the 'Scramble for Africa,' dividing the continent among various imperial colonizers and contributing to ongoing conflicts in independent African nations like South Sudan, Somalia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Similar arbitrary line-drawing occurred in South Asia by the British, resulting in the partition of India and Pakistan, leading to enduring conflicts. In the Middle East, after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 shaped the region's future, setting the stage for conflicts in Syria, Iraq, and the ongoing Palestine-Israel conflict.

The Ottoman Empire, which originated in the 13th century in the Black Sea Region of present-day Turkey under Osman I, expanded across three continents. However, it faced challenges, including alliances with Austria and Germany in World War I and the Armenian genocide. After the war, the fate of Turkey was decided by the British and French, represented by Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot. They divided the Asian remnants of the Ottoman Empire into spheres of influence, with French control over parts of Syria and Iraq, and British influence in Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq.

The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 shaped the geopolitical landscape, and although territories remained relatively calm for decades, conflicts resurfaced, notably during World War II, leading to the creation of the State of Israel. The post-World War II era saw the ongoing repercussions of these decisions, particularly the Israel-Palestine conflict.

The issue of Israel's claim to the region has been a persistent problem, leading to an international sphere of influence for Palestine. The Greater Armenian region in eastern Turkey and parts of Kurdistan fell under Russian influence. The Lausanne Agreement of 1923 replaced the previous Treaty of Sèvres, defining the modern borders of Turkey.

The technological and governance superiority of Western powers allowed them to influence and control countries' destinies after the dissolution of their parent empires. International laws and the complexities of restoring territories prevent countries from reverting to their former borders, resulting in disorder, anarchy, and societal disturbances, leading to unstable governments.

Germany stands out as the only recent example of successful reunification, occurring in 1990 between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany. However, for many other regions, the possibility of unification or border realignment seems unlikely, perpetuating unrest and instability. The events in the Levant, including Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine, cannot be reversed, emphasizing the enduring impact of colonial decisions.

The map below depicts Turkey in 1916, delineating boundaries according to the Sykes-Picot agreement.

Somalia 1900s

The Somali coast started populating in the 2nd century AD. Coastal settlements such as Malao, Mundus, Mosylon, Tave, Oponi, Sarapion etc., existed when eastern Africa had the flourishing kingdom of Axum (150 BC-960 AD) in today's Ethiopia, Eritrea and Yemen. The medieval Islamic kingdom of Adel was the first royal entity to exist on the coast of Somalia and Djibouti, which existed since the 12th century and flourished nearly three centuries later. The rise of the Muqdisho (Mogadishu) Sultanate under the Omani and, later, Zanzibari suzerainty existed throughout the medieval era till the 16th century. 

This was followed by the majestic Ajuran Sultanate that spread to the southern portion of Somalia in the 13th century, followed by Ifat (covering parts of Ethiopia) and Warsangli in the 14th century. The rising Ethiopian Empire slowly engulfed Ifat, and a conquest war over Ethiopia and Somalia swung between Adal, Ifat and Ethiopian Empires, all till the arrival of the Europeans in Africa. 

Although majorly rising in Asia and Europe, the Ottoman Empire saw its presence on the coasts of Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia in the 16th century. The Imamate of Aussa (spread across Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia) and the ruling clan of Mudaitos rose during this period that would later find their place among European colonisation in the coming centuries. As the centuries passed, two major Somali clans ascended powers in the 19th century - the Majeerteen in the northeast and the Geledi in the south. In the 19th century, a portion of northern Somalia was also acquired by the Khedive of Egypt between 1874 to 1884. The internal turmoils in the Somali territory led to its abandonment and takeover by the United Kingdom as British Somaliland in 1887. In 1890, the Hoboyo Sultanate became a protectorate to a new member of colonial power - Italy. 

The French, the most powerful European power in northern Africa, found its colony in Djibouti and along the Dervish polities in Somalia and Ethiopia and the Imamate of Aussa. Soon as the 1900s proceeded, the Italians became a giant superpower with the establishment of the Italian East Africa that stretched from Eritrea to Somalia. At the same time, the British Somaliland took shape in the northern region. French Somaliland was what today is Djibouti. After the Italian defeat in the Second World War, Italian East Africa was divided into a new Ethiopian Empire and four parts - British Occupied Eritrea, Djibouti, British Ogaden (eastern Ethiopia) and British Military Administration in Somalia. The Trust Territory of Somaliland under the United Nations existed between 1950 to 1960 and was again administrated under Italy when it finally gained independence in 1960. 

The unification of Somaliland and Somalia into one single Somali Republic on 1st July 1960. Nine years later, the Somali Democratic Republic was formed, and in the 1970s, the nation would occupy Ethiopia's Ogaden region, claiming as the original Greater Somalia. Tension rose in the Somali region in 1991 when former British Somaliland seceded as the Republic of Somaliland on 18th May 1991, a nation not recognised internationally. Seven years later, the northeastern region, known as Puntland, declared the territory autonomous. 

The troubled state in Somalia started exceeding in the 1970s when a series of unstable intermediary governments were established, beginning with the Somali Democratic Republic between 1969 to 1991. This was followed by the Interim Government of Somalia (and the separatist Republic of Somaliland) between 1991 to 1997. Between 2000 to 2004, a Transitional National Government of the Republic of Somalia was established with disintegrated state authorities. The failure to establish peace and end the civil war led to the establishment of another interim government - the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia between 2004 to 2012. 

French Somaliland also had a brief Russian interaction in Sagallo in 1889. Other than that, the territory changed its status from a colony to an overseas territory of France in 1946. Multiple independence referendums were held, once in 1958 and the other in 1967, leading to French victory; hence, in 1967, the French Territory of the Afars and Issas was established. Finally, in 1977, the country gained independence, and the intermediate Sultanates, such as Tadjoura, Gobaad and Rahayta, became part of Djibouti. 

On old maps, Djibouti is predominantly written as Jibuti, while the Somali coast has various names. Names of the kingdoms mentioned above, such as Adel, and other clan names, such as Adea and Granze, and the cities of Barbara, Zazella, Asum and Magadaxo, are to be found on a 16th-century map. On a 1708 dated French map, the Somali coast is mentioned as Coste d'Azur. On another 1822 French map, the word Saumolis appears in the Somaliland territory, while clans such as Merrehan, Jego, Magadoxo and Gallas encompass the remaining areas of Somalia and parts of Ethiopia. With the progression in the 19th century, the Somauli Country phrase started to appear, overtaking the former Adel Sultanate, while Magadoxo became the head of state. And thus, the word Somali becomes much more prominent than others. 

Today, the provinces of Somalia are divided into 18 regions, while that of Djibouti has 6. Below is a map of the Somali coast dating back to the early 1900s.