European factories and Armenians in Agra

The Taj Mahal is the first synonym that springs to mind when Agra is mentioned.  In the early days of colonial India, Bombay Madras and Calcutta were the usual cities of reference. However Agra holds a unique connection to the construction of the Taj Mahal.  This connection revolves around trade factories.  As a major Mughal cosmopolitan and one of the empire's capitals, Agra saw several early trade factories established by the English, Dutch and Portuguese.  Another power, the Armenians, also established trade routes and nodes in Agra (and other parts of India) but didn't pursue colonial ambitions. 

The first trade factory in Agra, then known as Akbarabad, was established in 1614 by EIC agent William Edwards.  He was tasked with overseeing indigo purchases and trade between the Mughal Empire and England.  Additionally, he was responsible for reporting on tensions between the Portuguese and Mughals, which he submitted directly to London.  Agra was chosen as the principal Mughal capital, home to Emperor Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim or Jehangir.  The indigo-growing belt between Agra and Bayana (in Rajasthan's Bharatpur district) further solidified Agra's status as a European trade hub, attracting the Dutch shortly after four years in 1618.  Both European powers arrived from Surat, expanding their trade networks and influencing Emperors Jehangir and Shah Jahan while keeping a watchful eye on their Portuguese rivals. 

Back in Europe, the politics of the Habsburg dynasty's succession led Portugal to fight against the Dutch.  While they were closer to England diplomatically, they were fierce competitors in Asia for trade.  Ultimately, both England and the Dutch wanted to expel the Portuguese from trading in India or at least significantly reduce their presence there, which eventually happened.  However, Agra even had Portuguese influence, albeit through Jesuit missions sent from Goa, long before the arrival of English and Dutch traders.  Between the 1580s and 1635, and then from 1636 onwards, the Portuguese were permitted to conduct their religious missions in Agra, using religious tools to establish complete dominance.  Their disruptive behaviour caused considerable unrest in Hooghly, prompting Shah Jahan to seize their trade centres and relocate the troublemakers to Agra.  He ordered the demolition of their church in 1635, subsequently favouring the trade incentives offered by England and the Dutch.  Consequently, Portuguese influence in Agra waned, leading to the complete control of English and Dutch traders. 

Another European (formerly Asian) player who influenced Indian town trade markets without any colonial ambitions was Armenia.  Its geography has witnessed some of history's most dramatic shifts.  For centuries during antiquity, it thrived as an independent kingdom.  Later, during the Byzantine era, it was partitioned.  In the Middle Ages, it re-emerged as the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia.  Subsequently, it was submerged by the Mamluks, Timurids, various Turkmen clans, the Ottomans and Iranians. Finally, it was recognised as the First Republic of Armenia in 1918.  However, when Armenians first arrived in the subcontinent, they were predominantly from Isfahan's New Julfa, the Armenian quarter.  The larger Armenian realm was divided between the Ottomans and Safavids.  Their initial destinations included Surat and Agra, later moving on to Lahore, Ahmedabad, Burhanpur, Masulipatam (Machilipatnam), Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata), Murshidabad and Dhaka. 

In the 16th century, Mughal emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar invited Armenians to trade in Agra.  This was to share profits from the indigo business between the Mughals and Safavids.  Unlike Europeans, Armenians were strictly traders and avoided military conflicts with local rulers.  While some served as mercenaries or freelancers in Mughal armies, they never established a large group to dominate beyond their trading base.  Although they didn't exert military pressure in Indian cities, they engaged in fierce commercial competition with Europeans, particularly in Agra. 

Following the capital's shift from Agra to Delhi, trading patterns underwent significant changes.  Having been discredited at the Mughal court, the Portuguese opted to permanently leave Agra, redirecting their focus to coastal territories.  While the Dutch maintained a lodge in Agra for several years, they ultimately gained more strength along the coast.  As the costs of maintaining the lodge became prohibitive, they closed it in Agra by 1648.  The Armenians, disinclined towards military engagement, positioned themselves between the Dutch and English, relying heavily on court favours. Consequently, they too shifted to ports. However, the English employed native and even Armenian brokers for their business, so even after the capital moved to Delhi, their brokerage and coastal profits remained largely unaffected.

In 1835, Agra became a British Presidency, shortly before being reorganised into the North West Provinces.  The era of factories had long passed, and while it was now a British territory, European factories and the Armenian church had vanished. Today, these factories could likely be found between Paliwal Park and Nehru Nagar Gardens in Civil Lines.

The map below recreates Akbarabad (Agra), as sketched by Ishwar Prakash Gupta between 1981 and 1986. It depicts the city as it appeared in 1658, highlighting 'Padri Tola', a neighbourhood comprising Armenian caravan sarais, Jesuit and Portuguese churches, and approximate locations of Dutch and English factories near the Jamuna (or Yamuna) river. 

The United Provinces (Dutch Republic) were a Protestant republican confederation striving for independence.  Meanwhile, the Spanish Netherlands remained Catholic and under Habsburg rule.  By 1603, the Dutch Republic, though not yet formally recognised, was already functioning independently in the north.  The southern provinces (Spanish Netherlands) remained loyal to Spain, creating a divided battleground in the Low Countries during the Eighty Years' War.  Simultaneously, their trade in India was exploited by multiple European powers. This map is sourced from the Educational Technology Clearinghouse at the University of South Florida, 2009. 

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Armenia wasn't a truly independent kingdom or nation as it once was.  Divided between the Safavid Empire of Iran and the Ottoman Empire of Turkey, Isfahan, the city, became the main centre for Armenians.  From there, Armenian traders travelled to India for trade. This map is based on Herman Moll's original work from 1732.