The Indo-Greeks

Ptolemy's Geographica, published in 150 AD, shows the world starting from Europe in the west, to northern Africa (denoted by Libya, Æthiopia and Ægyptus) in the south and India Extra Gangem marking as the easternmost boundary, that pretty much covers the entire subcontinent. But the knowledge of India some 475 years before 150 AD was even more limited when the information about the Orient was based on folktales and not much was covered by any travellers or merchants. But during Alexander III of Macedon or Alexander the 'Great''s campaign in Asia (not mentioning the 'Asia' that meant Anatolia in classical history), they were introduced to a different lot of civilisation beyond the Hindukush mountain range. 

The Mauryan Empire existed between 322 to 184 BC (138 years). During this time, the Greeks had their kingdoms flourishing in the northwestern part of the subcontinent, most of which is in today's Afghanistan and Pakistan. Majorly the Greek population saw them establishing smaller kingdoms after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, where numerous fragments of Greek states occupied what today is the Punjab basin, formed by the five rivers - Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Beas and Satluj and the adjoining Indus river. But what is more fascinating is how the Greeks knew India and what names they used to describe Indian territories, cities and people. 

A quote by Megasthenes, an ancient Greek historian who lived between the 4th to 3rd centuries BC, describes India as a country lying between Tauros, Ariana (a major province to the east of today's Iran) to the Eastern Sea and the natives are known by the names such as Parapamisos (the Hindukush and Pamirs mountain range in Afghanistan) and Hemodos or Himaos. He also described India as divided into four satrapies (governments or provinces): Gedrosi, Arachotae, Arii & Paropamisadae, making the River Cophes (Kabul River) its further limit. 

As per Dr Schwartzberg's 1977 atlas, here are the various Greek settlements that existed across the Punjab river plains and the Indus River: 

• Assoi
• Arsagalitai
• Abisareis
• Taxilai (Taxila / Takshashila)
• Gogaraioi
• Gandaridai (Gandhara)
• Nysaikoi
• Gretai
• Assakenoi (Ashvakayanas)
• Aspasioi (Ashvayanas)
• Abortai
• Malloi (Malava)
• Sopheites
• Osioi
• Ambastai (Amvastha)
• Hydrakoi
• Oxyrakai
• Agalassesis
• Dumbritai
• Kingdom of Oxykanos
• Mousikanoi
• Ouroi & Selenoi
• Kingdom of Sambos (Sauvira)
• Kokondai
• Sambrakenoi
• Sarophages
• Singai
• Arabitai
• Oretai
• Samarabriai

Just before the arrival of the Greeks, the two empires that dominated South Asian politics were the Achaemenid and the Magadhan. While Magadha flourished in the Indo-Gangetic plain, the Achaemenid expansion reached the borders of the Indus Valley. The strongest force to resist this foreign expansion was that of Gandhara or Gandaridai, which is today's Peshawar valley in Pakistan. The empire existed between 550 to 330 BC and, at its greatest, extended from Greece, and Bulgaria's coasts, covering Türkiye, the Levant, parts of Egypt, Libya and then minor parts of Saudi Arabia and Oman. Its major expansion covered Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus nations of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. It stretched as far as Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Kashmir valley of India. 

Darius I, or King of Kings Darius the Great, reigning between 522 BC to 486 BC, commissioned Skylax to explore the Indus Valley, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf in 517 BC. Skylax of Caryanda (an ancient city located near Cos island, southwest Türkiye) was a Greek explorer whose work helped historians such as Hecataeus (550 BC to 476 BC) and Herodotus (483 BC to 431 BC) to map better the extent of Indian provinces of the Achaemenid Empire. This expedition was followed by Alexander the Great, who divided his conquered satrapies into the following zones:

1. Paropamisadae (Bannu basin, Kabul, Peshawar and Swat valley) with its capital at Alexandria (Kapisi or Kamboja; today's Bagram, in Afghanistan)
2. Assakenoi, with its capital at Peukela; near today's Charsadda, Pakistan)
3. Vassal kingdoms of Taxila, Abisareis, Arsakai etc. 
4. Dominions of Porus extending from Hydaspes (River Jhelum) to Hyphasis (River Beas).
5. Territories from Oxydrakai to Alexandria (Uch, Pakistan) in the south.
6. The Indus region below Alexandria (Uch), including the Arabitai (Sindh). 
7. Gedrosia (Baluchistan), including the domains of Oreitai, joined by Arachosia (central Afghanistan)

So, the early Greeks occupied territories in today's Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan more than in India. But the geography of later Greek kings extended towards Indian territories. While the 7th Mauryan emperor Devavarman (202 BC to 195 BC), ruled the gigantic Mauryan Empire that extended from Pakistan to the coasts of Odisha and Bengal, the first Indo-Greek ruler Demetrius I (200 BC to 180 BC) had his dominions spread from Bactria to the northwest Indian subcontinent. This Graeco-Bactrian kingdom extended inwards beyond the Indus. During this time, the Shunga dynasty overthrew the Mauryan Empire under Pushyamitra Shunga, who reigned between 185 to 145 BC. Demetrius I was succeeded by the following: 

1. Demetrius I (r. 200 BC to 180 BC)
2. Apollodotus I (r. 173 BC to 166 BC)
3. Demetrius II (r. 166 BC to 161 BC)
4. Pantaleon (r. 175 BC to 174 BC) 
5. Menander I (r. 151 BC to 129 BC)
6. Zoilos I (r. 130 BC to 114 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
7. Agathokleia (r. 130 BC to 119 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
8. Lysias (r. 119 BC to 115 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
9. Stratio I (r. 119 BC to 112 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
10. Antialciadas (r. 115 BC to 110 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
11. Heliokles II (r. 112 BC to 110 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
12. Polyxenos (r. 110 BC to 99 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
13. Demetrius III (r. 110 BC to 100 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
14. Philoxenos (r. 100 BC to 94 BC)
15. Diomedes (r. 95 BC to 92 BC; ruled Paropamisadae or northern Pakistan)
16. Amyntas Nicator (r. 95 BC to 90 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
17. Espander (r. 95 BC to 88 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
18. Thiophilos Dicaeus (r. 130 BC to 90 BC; ruled Paropamisadae or northern Pakistan)
19. Peukaloas (r. 89 BC to 85 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
20. Artemidoros Aniketos (r. 85 BC to 80 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
21. Nicias (r. 90 BC to 85 BC; ruled Paropamisadae or northern Pakistan)
22. Menander II Dikaios (r. 95 BC to 85 BC; ruled Arachosia or southern Afghanistan)
23. Archebius Dikaios Nikephoros (r. 90 BC to 80 BC; ruled Sagala or Sialkot)
24. Hermaeus Soter (r. 90 BC to 70 BC)
25. Apollodotus II (r. 80 BC to 65 BC)
26. Hippostratos (r. 65 BC to 55 BC)
27. Telephus Eurgetes (r. 75 BC to 70 BC) 
28. Dionysios Soter (r. 65 BC to 55 BC)
29. Zoilus II (r. 55 BC to 35 BC)
30. Strato II (r. 25 BC to 10 AD)
31. Strato III (r. 25 BC to 10 AD)

While the Indo-Greeks were reigning on the Punjab plains, numerous empires and kingdoms flourished in the subcontinent. Starting from the Shunga Empire and the Satavahanas in the 2nd century BC, it was followed by the Indo-Scythians, which existed till 400 AD. The Kanva dynasty existed in Bengal between 73 to 28 BC, overthrowing the Shungas. The Indo-Parthians appeared around 9 BC and existed till 226 AD, overthrowing the Indo-Greeks and establishing an amalgamation of ancient Iranian tribes. 

Below is a map from Dr. Schwartzberg's Digital South Asian atlas and Ollie Bye's video: 'A History of India: Every Year'.